This lesson examines the sources of funding available to corporations in international capital markets.

6.1 Equity Capital Markets
Companies can raise equity capital through public offerings (including IPOs and secondary offerings) or private placements. International equity instruments include American Depositary Receipts (ADRs) and Global Depositary Receipts (GDRs) .

6.2 Debt Capital Markets
Debt instruments include corporate bonds, Eurobonds, floating-rate notes, and commercial paper. Credit ratings influence borrowing costs and access to debt markets .

6.3 Alternative Funding Solutions
Alternative funding includes asset-backed finance, securitisation, intra-group funding, and emerging solutions such as fintech platforms and ESG-linked financing .